ARAKAN INDOBHASA

Wooden crowned bodhisattva king image from Pagan.
Right hand is in varada mudra while left is placed across chest.
Height 4 ft 9 ins. Circa 12th-13th century

At least two wooden stelae have survived from the Pagan era, and are now housed in the new Pagan Archaeological Museum. One exquisite example in black teak wood depicts Lord Buddha's Descent from the Tavatimsa heaven. On a round double lotus he stands in the graceful tribhanga (three body-bends) pose with his left leg slightly bent. The left hand, unfortunately broken, touches the robe at the shoulder. A three-faced Brahma sheltering Lord Buddha with an umbrella, stands on Buddha's left, while the god Indra, resplendent in a high crown and ornaments, stands on his right holding an alms bowl. Sariputta, Lord Buddha's disciple, kneels reverently at his feet. The other stele depicts the Buddha flanked by Mogallana and Sariputta, his two chief disciples, who are standing on lotus flowers coming from the mouth of a kirtimukha (lion mask). Lord Buddha's throne is borne on the backs of three lion figures.

Whether the craftsman was an amateur or professional, he followed the traditional schema for carving prescribed in the ancient Pali texts. One such book found in Burma laid down the following instructions for carving a Buddha image: "The chin of the image must be like that of the king lion, which is round and not pointed. The cheeks must be thick and round like the full moon; they should be extended from the chin to the ears. The neck must have three sections. The chest must be thick like a lion. In carving a Buddha image, it should have a well-filled appearance when one looks at it from every corner."

Wood carving of Lord Buddha standing between Sariputta and Mogallana, his two chiefdisciples. Note elaborate base with lotus flowers coming from lion mask. Circa 13th century, Pagan



Burmese images made in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries depict Buddha in only three positions. The most popular naturally is that of Lord Buddha seated cross-legged in the lotus position with the right hand in the earth touching mudra, followed by the standing pose where he is portrayed with the right hand raised palm outwards in abhaya (freedom from fear) attitude. The left hand is held downwards often touching the garment in the varada mudra. In later nineteenth century wood and lacquer images it is not uncommon for both hands to be placed in varada mudra, with the right hand often holding a fruit between the thumb and the index finger signifying food that Lord Buddha received from various devotees before and after his Enlightenment. The third position depicts Lord Buddha in the act of dying or passing into nirvana, the ultimate goal of devout Buddhists. He is shown lying on his right side with his cheek resting on his right hand which may be either propped on its elbow, or lie flat against the body.

Burmese Buddha statues are generally meant to be viewed from the front rather than from the side or back, so all the sculptor's effort is concentrated on the front. The side view lacks depth, largely because the back of the statue rarely portrays the natural body contours of the spine or buttocks, and the back of most Buddhas is usually flat, the only decoration shown being the flap of the robe over the left shoulder. This lack of attention to the back view probably came about because many of the earliest images were in the form of stelae in high relief so that back modelling was unnecessary. Most Buddhas were commissioned to be placed on an altar, or back to back against a pillar where the rear view was never seen. Burmese Buddha statues are also meant to be viewed from below rather than at eye level. If one looks up at a statue, some of the fullness of face and the general heaviness of the figure is diminished by perspective. The carver generally tried to emphasize Lord Buddha's spiritual rather than his physical nature. He attempted to show him as a blandly attractive person unaffected by his asceticism, exuding a mood of inner calm and tranquillity.

Mandalay style wooden Buddha with right hand in earth touching
position. There is an inscription on base of throne.
Height 3ft. 19th century

Before discussing the different types of eighteenth and nineteenth century images found in wood and lacquer, it might be useful to explain in detail the process of making lacquer images, which is much less well known than the wood carving process. The making of lacquer images centred on a group of villages just outside Ye-U township in the Monywa district. The craftsmen were not professional, but were farmers who made images in their spare time.

The villagers first made a rough image from well-kneaded clay. Then a wooden or iron tool called a than-let was used to shape in the basic details. Before the clay image was completely dry, it was smeared with a mixture of water and straw ash. Over this core was laid a plaster of thit-se (lacquer) mixed with finely sifted teak sawdust. Delicate areas such as the eyes, nose and mouth were shaped in detail using the than-let. Once the plaster was hardened, the inner clay core was removed. The plaster had to be cut open to remove the clay from the less accessible areas such as the head and arms. The openings were resealed by a further application of the same plaster, and the image was then covered with another coat of filtered thit-se, this time mixed with the ashes of straw or bran. It was again smoothed with the than-let, then polished with a stone smeared with sesame, and left to dry. Once the lacquer was hardened, the image was washed and again polished with a stone before being varnished with the purest red-brown or black lacquer. It was then ready for the donors to gild.

These images were usually made during the cool season from November to February, which provided the best conditions for drying both the lacquer and the clay core. A man could make thirty to thirty-five images per season. Most were reported as being sold to the Shan States.

In lacquer images the face tends to be triangular to squarish and at first glance somewhat resembles the sixteenth century Ava marble images. The forehead is small but wide and the broad sweeping brows sit well above a long straight nose which terminates in flaring nostrils. The eyes, widely separated from the eyebrows, resemble grains of rice paddy. The nostril lines are prominent and end in a small smiling bow-shaped mouth which looks slightly simpering at times. The large ears touch the shoulders and the boundaries of the ear hole and lobe are marked by embossing or a double line of incising. There is usually a small fillet band separating the hair line from the face. The head and usnisha are generally covered with either small blunt beaded curls which resemble the skin of the jack fruit, or by a cap of sharp spikes often referred to as "Shwebo thorns" or "durian spines" (a comparison with the appearance of a characteristic tropical fruit). There is a hole in the usnisha to accommodate a tall bulb-shaped "wooden finial which is added when the image is complete.

Most images are seated in the earth touching position with fingers all of the same length. The left hand in the lap is sometimes supported underneath by a small prop of lacquer. Clothing ranges from the barest outlines indicated either by incising or embossing, to quite an extensive series of shallow pleats and folds across the chest and raised spirals over the knees. Sometimes the lappet over the left shoulder is embossed with a raised lacquer design which may even be inlaid with glass. There is often a small flap over the right shoulder. Thrones vary greatly from plain rounded pedestals to splendid high waisted stands embossed with lotus petals and other floral decoration. Many are edged with small square or triangular protuberances. Lacquer images, because they are hollow and light, can be made in a wide range of sizes. The smallest images are about 18 inches high while the largest are over six feet. Some of the thrones of the larger images are equipped with rings to aid in handling.
Lacquer has also been widely used on wooden images for decorative purposes. Most wooden images have been given a coat of lacquer, partly to preserve them and also to provide a base for gilding with gold leaf Lacquer mixed with bone ash has provided much of the moulded decoration such as hair, jewelry, borders on clothing and floral motives seen on wooden images. It has also provided the base for the inlay of colored glass and mirror popular on later images.

The "Mandalay" style, which has developed since the end of the eighteenth century and was so prevalent in bronze and marble, is often followed in wooden sculpture and occasionally in lacquer. In wood a little more licence has been taken than was the case with stone and bronze sculpture.

Wooden Mandalay style Buddha, standing on lotus throne. Both hands are in varada mudra, and right holds small fruit-like object. The robe is rather like a cape. Height 30 ins. 19th-20th century



Craftsmen have obviously revelled in chiselling out the deep folds of the garments, particularly in standing and reclining images. Some carvers have not been averse to making some variations on the general clothing schema themselves, and the complex system of folds has been highlighted by borders of glass inlay. The fillet band separating the face from the hair on many images has also been set with inlaid decoration. The hair and fleshy usnisha, which has no finial, is usually covered in small lacquer curls wrought either in a circular or linear fashion. Sometimes the face is painted white rather than gilded. The hands on many images have been made separately and added later. The thrones are usually plain or in the form of a double lotus. Images in this style vary from 12 inches high seated statues to standing and reclining images of life-sized dimen-sions.There are a number of wooden images that are outstanding for their simplicity, indeed they resemble somewhat the bronzes of the post-Pagan period in style. The face is round and finely arched eyebrows frame small downcast eyes. The nose is long and pointed, and below it is a small smiling mouth. The The ears placed well back curve outwards as they touch the shoulders. The head is covered by a cap of beaded lacquer curls while the usnisha is topped by a small bulbous finial. All are portrayed in the earth touching mudra with fingers of equal length. Simple clothing lines are lightly etched in on the red or black lacquer coating which covers the whole image. Some Buddha images sit on high waisted thrones while others sit on a platform supported by three to five elephants. The images vary in size from about 20 inches for a Buddha on a plain pedestal to 40 inches high for one mounted on elephants.

Reclining wooden Buddha image in Mandalay style, portraying Lord Buddha passing into nirvana,
resting on right elbow. Exposed parts of body are painted white, and hair is shown by lines
of raised lacquer. Length 24 ins, height at head 17 ins. Late 19th or early 20th century

Thrones supported by elephants are very often found and bring to mind some of the incarnations in which Lord Buddha was an elephant. This form of decoration is also suggestive of the Buddha as a universal monarch who, as a symbol of kingship, was expected to have many elephants. Some elephants supporting crowned images are shown elaborately harnessed in all their regalia.

Occasionally one may be seen with trunk upraised. Other fanciful thrones may depict animals of the zodiac, monkeys, tigers, peacocks and manushias (double-bodied lions) depending on the whim of the donor. A wide variety of geometric and floral decorations, often inlaid with glass, can be seen on many thrones. Horizontal levels on waisted thrones are often emphasised by sawtooth and scalloped protuberances. Inscriptions in Pali or Burmese giving the name of the donor, his reasons for having the statue made and the date of completion, may occasionally be seen, usually at the base of the throne. Some representations of Lord Buddha show him seated in the folds of the Mucalinda Naga (the snake which sheltered him from a storm during his Enlightenment) framed by a large hood.

One special type of Buddha image made either in lacquer or wood, that grew in popularity during the nineteenth century, is a quaint rotund figure called Dakkhina Sakkha. It represents a Buddha statue supposedly made of the wood of the sacred Bo Tree in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. This figure seated in the earth touching position is very squat and heavy set, particularly when sculptured in wood. The pudding-shaped face with downcast eyes seems to merge into the shoulders as the neck is barely discernible. The hairline is scalloped to represent a lotus leaf covering. The head is crowned with a round usnisha and there is no flame finial, not even on the lacquer image. Occasionally nine auspicious circular marks may be seen; one on the forehead, and one on each shoulder, elbow, knee and side of the posterior. This type of image is often found in a Burmese home for it is thought to be effective in bringing wealth and warding off fire.

The Burmese love of flamboyant ornamentation is given full rein in crowned Buddha images in the jambhupati style where Lord Buddha is portrayed as a king. The crowned Buddha image with the high leaf-like kirita crown and tall trailing flanges surrounding a long spire, which was so popular in Ava bronzes, is also duplicated in wood and lacquer. A new crowned style that displays vestiges of Thai influence became popular in later images and continues today. In this style the image wears a tall three-, five- or seven-tiered cap, not unlike that of a Thai dancer, which often culminates in a spire. Smaller flanges spring from the headband of the cap and twine outwards over the ears. In addition to the usual complement of jewelry, some are dressed in Thai-Burmese royal costume with upturned epaulettes and leaf-like flanges springing from the elbows and knees. In some images the torso is covered with a net-like bodice. There may also be a lappet of clothing between the legs. The chest is covered with a salwe, the insignia of the Burmese kings. It consists of a series of crossed bands over each shoulder joined across the breast by medallions. Jambhupati images are usually gilded and sit upon elaborate thrones. Some also hold a kalasa pot in the left hand.

Art historians, while revelling in the glories of Pagan) have generally been rather critical of later Burmese images. There is a tendency to dismiss them as clumsy and monotonous. While this might be true of some images, happily there are others which rise above the general level. At this point it should be reiterated that the demand for images was constant and widespread. Not all could afford, or had the opportunity, to employ professional craftsmen, so many people in remote villages made their own images or had others make them on a part-time basis. As a result, while many are not perhaps in the realm of great art, they do have a delightful homespun quality about them. \What they lack in artistic refinement is compensated for by a primitive simplicity, not always in the pristine sense of cleanliness and soberness of outline, for the Burmese love flamboyant decoration, but rather in the gaiety of spirit leading to some idiosyncrasies which are purely Burmese. Where else in the Buddhist world would one find the donor's birthday animal peeking out mischievously from the side of a pedestal, or a throne with two carved monkeys playfully scratching themselves while an unperturbed Buddha gazes downward with hand extended as if to pat them?

The sheer number and variety of Buddha images that have been produced in Burma bear ample testimony to the deep abiding devotion that the Burmese feel towards the Theravada Buddhist faith.

Sandstone Buddha in preaching mudra, with richly dressed man
at his feet. From Kyauk-taw, Arakan, this group shows Gupta
influence and may date from as early as 400 A.D. 231 ins high,
15 ins wide. Photo, courtesy U San Tha Aung

On most stone reliefs Lord Buddha, as the central figure, is usually shown seated either in the lotus position with upraised soles on thighs, or in virasana with the right leg over the left. The hands show a greater variety of mudras (gestures) compared with later images, ranging from dhyana mudra, with both hands resting palm upwards in the lap, to dharmacakra, the preaching position with the fingers of both hands touching across the chest, and abhaya, or freedom from fear, with the palm of the right hand held outwards. The earth touching position of bhumisparsa is also popular, but in many cases the right (or occasionally the left) arm is spread out well to the side over the thigh before it touches the ground, instead of plunging straight from the shoulder in front of the knee over the shin as it does in later images.

Pyu sandstone sculpture from East Zegu Pagoda,
Srikshetra, showing haloed Buddha in virasana
between two bodhisattvas. 2 ft 8 ins high, 1 ft 6-1/2 ins wide.
6th-7th century A.D.
Photo, courtesy of Archaeological Dept, Rangoon (A.D.R.)

The head is usually surrounded by a halo. Unfortunately, in many cases the face has been broken off, so it is not always possible to make out the features. Wear and tear on the surface of the sculpture has also made lines of clothing difficult to distinguish. The remainder of the slab is usually filled with disciples and bodhisattvas. It may sometimes be decorated with a very popular Indian motif, a makara (a crocodile type of mythical beast) supported by a standing lion on an elephant. This motif is a popular backdrop to Buddha figures in both Pyu and Pagan times.

In addition to general scenes of Lord Buddha and followers, famous episodes of his life were often depicted such as The Eight Great Scenes: the Birth from his mother's side at Lumbini; the Enlightenment under the Bodhi tree; the First Sermon at the deer park in Sarnath; the Taming of the wild Nalagiri Elephant that his enemies sent to kill him; the Twin Miracles in which Buddha causes flames and water to pour forth from his body and images of himself to appear across the sky; the Sojourn in the Parileyyaka forest where he accepts the gift of a honey­comb from a monkey; the Descent from the Tavatimsa heaven where he went to preach the Abhidhamma to his mother; and his death or Parinirvana. These are rendered strictly following Indian conventions and are instantly recognizable by believers. Some particularly fine examples of the preaching of the First Sermon have been recovered from Srikshetra. The scene can be identified by the placing of a wheel between two couch­ant deer below a Buddha in the preaching position.

Other early stone images from Burma prior to the Pagan period (A.D. 1044-1287) have been known to come from Arakan on the western coast of Burma, which, until its conquest by the Burmese King Bodawpaya in 1785, had a long and distinct history of its own. Statues have been recovered from Dinnyawaddy (A.D. 146-788) and Vesali (A.D. 788-957), two of the earliest kingdoms of northern Arakan. Like Burma, Arakan received Buddhism from India and over the centuries developed a slightly differing art style of its own. The earliest known example of Buddhist sculpture uncovered in Burma is a sandstone image originally from Kyauk-taw, the site of the famous Mahamuni Pagoda. It is now in the Mrauk-U Museum. Stylistically it could be as old as A.D. 400. It depicts Lord Buddha seated with his right knee slightly raised on a square undecorated throne with his hands in the dharmacakra preaching position. A richly ornamented man sits at his feet. The head of the Buddha image is clearer than those of the Pyu remains and, like them, shows a strong Gupta influence in the long nose, the full lips, peppercorn curls and the elongated ears stopping just short of the shoulders.

In coastal Ramannadesa (Thaton), the home of the early Mons of Burma who spread over much of Thailand and Cambodia from the seventh to ninth century A.D., some fine standing stone slab images have been found pre-dating the Pagan period. Unfortunately many are damaged or have been repaired. The images are almost life-size and show some very skilled modeling. In addition to Gupta influence, traces of a South Indian style are discernible in some sculpture. The main figure is in high relief, almost in the round, while the background scenes are flat or sunk in lower relief. The themes depicted in stone, like those from Srikshetra, are taken from the Eight Great Scenes. At Tadagale, just outside Rangoon, an excavation in 1937 revealed traces of five weathered laterite Buddhas, each approximately two feet high, seated cross-legged in either the dhyana or bhumisparsa mudra on high thrones against a back slab. They are thought to date from some time between the fifth and eleventh centuries A.D.

Part of a stele from Pyu site of Halingyi, showing a group of people in attitude of devotion. Top half, probably a Buddha image, has broken off. 8th./9th century A.D. Photo, A.D.R.

Pagan, the most glorious period artistically in Burma's history, was also a high point of stone sculpture. A grey sandstone was quarried from the nearby hills and turned into four feet high stelae with the Buddha image carved in high relief against a back slab, sometimes plain but often decorated with architectural, animal and vegetal motifs. The statues, which show strong affinities with eighth to twelfth century Pala-Sena art of Bihar and Bengal, generally depict scenes from Lord Buddha's life with the Enlightenment scene taking precedence over all others.

Buddha is shown seated with smoothly chiseled feet locked in the lotus position. The right hand, with fingers of differing length, plunges from the shoulder and falls straight over the upper shin to touch the throne in front of the knee. The left hand lies relaxed, palm upwards in the lap.

Dharmacakra and dhyana mudras, although still seen, are less popular than in Pyu images. The Pagan face is oval to triangular with a slightly pointed chin. Arched eyebrows nearly join at the bridge of a long aquiline nose. Half-closed eyes gaze modestly downwards. The mouth, set in a half smile, is small but well-defined, the lower lip being slightly thicker than the upper. In some cases the forehead is marked by an urna (one of the marks of Buddha hood). Elongated ear lobes do not quite touch the shoulders. The head is covered with rows of small spiral curls, sometimes coming to a slight peak in front and terminating in a small flame finial above the usnisha (a fleshy lump on the head) which is placed a little back from the centre of the skull. The neck, with three distinct lines, is mounted on a body which is plump at the shoulders but tapers to a narrow waist. The robe, in most cases, is lightly defined below the right nipple culminating in a flap over the left breast. A line is visible at the waist below the navel, and double wavy hemlines can be seen around the ankles. In some statues the only signs of clothing are lines around the neck and wrists. Supporting these sculptures is a double lotus throne with petals well-defined and deeply carved.


During the Pagan period, the Buddha may be a single image or it may be one in a series of stories depicting the many significant events of his life. When depicted in a scene, the Master is by far the largest figure. He may be seated, standing or reclining as the story demands. Other key figures are either portrayed around him, much smaller in size and in lower relief, or in a predella below the Buddha image. These statues were usually presented as a series of stations, being placed in niches in the hallways of main temples. The most famous are those of the Ananda Temple which has a series of eighty, giving a detailed pictorial account of Buddha's life from his Conception until his Enlightenment. Other temples such as the Kyaukku Ohnmin, the Nagayon, Minkaba Kubyaukgyi and the Minpyagu also have a less extensive, but alas, less well-preserved series of sculptures of Buddha's life.



Delicately carved dolomite tablet found near Upali Thein, Pagan, showing Eight Great Scenes of Buddha's life. Buddha figure in Enlightenment pose is surrounded by seven smaller scenes.
5 ins high, 3-1/2 ins wide. 11th century.
(Pagan Archaeological Museum). Photo, A.D.R.


Another legacy of Pala art can be seen in delicately carved dolomite tablets (Burmese: andagu) which portray the Eight Great Scenes of Buddha's life on a single slab. Some, in addition to the Eight Scenes, will also include the Seven Sites around the Bodhi tree for good measure. They vary in size from three to eight inches high. They are usually so finely carved that the interplay of light and shade is suggestive of filigree work. The Eight Scenes represented, beginning at the top in a clockwise direction, are: The Parinirvana; the Descent from the Tavatimsa; the Twin Miracles; the Sojourn in the Parileyyaka Forest; the Nativity; the First Sermon; and the Taming of the Nalagiri Elephant. Sometimes the order of the scenes may vary a little. These seven are arranged around a larger central Buddha figure, usually in monk's garb, but occasionally crowned. Seated in the earth touching position, the figure is flanked on either side by a bodhisattva enclosed within an arch of the hosts of the devil Mara: Buddha's throne is supported on either side by two graceful nagas (snake kings). Most andagu sculptures have been found in the Pagan district, while some have been found in Upper Burma and as far afield as Arakan.

Steatite plaque from Arakan, depicting the Eight Great Scenes. It shows the Lord Buddha in the
earth touching mudra under the pipul tree, with the other scenes around on the outside.
Circa 11th century.

During the late Pagan period, with the wane of Buddhism in India resulting in less contact between the two countries, a more distinctly local style began to develop, which was to become the norm for subsequent images. In this style the head has become larger in relation to the body. The face is broader and rounder. The curls are less prominent and in some cases the hair is only indicated by a line framing the face. On the larger face, the eyes look slightly more than half-closed. The nose too is less aquiline, while the mouth has become bow-shaped. The head drops slightly forward on a short neck. The ears have become thicker and touch the heavier set torso. The feet in the lotus position have become slab-like and the fingers are of uniform length. Clothing continues to be light and is indicated by a plain flap across the left shoulder and lines at the wrists and feet. Many images are now fully in the round without the back slab. The earth touching position has become the most popular pose.

During the Ava period (1364-1752), a century or so after the upheavals which followed the fall of Pagan, this style further developed. The best examples are in marble, which became a most popular medium from the seventeenth century onwards, although images continued to be made in sandstone. In marble images the face is somewhat squarish in shape and a narrow painted band marks the division between the forehead and the hair. The usnisha is in the form of a low truncated cone sometimes surmounted by a lotus finial. The head may be plain or set with the remains of small raised lacquer curls. The eyebrows, set high on the forehead, have become quite sweeping and bow-like. The distance between the half-closed downcast eyes and eyebrows is greater than in the earlier images. The nose is quite long with clearly defined nostrils. The mouth, close to the nose, is thin-lipped and set in a half-moon smile. There is a large chin area. Since the face tends to be flattish with little attempt to show the facial structure underneath, features such as eyebrows, eye-lids and mouth have been emphasized by incising and painting. The neck is short and thin, while the ears curve inwards level with the chin and turn outwards to touch the shoulders. As with later Pagan images, the most popular pose shows Buddha seated in the lotus position with right hand in the earth touching mudra. The left hand is usually slightly raised above the lap, sup-ported by a small plug of stone which the sculptor left uncut beneath the wrist. Occasionally there is also a small prop between the thumb and the fingers of the same hand. A double row of incising is generally used to indicate hem-lines and turns of cloth. Images continued to be made in this style until well into the nineteenth century.

Approximately at the same time as the Ava period, Arakan was experiencing the last and most glorious epoch in its history as an independent state. Its capital Mrauk-U, founded in A.D. 1430, was embellished with some remarkable fortress-type temples built by King Minbin (1531-1553) and his successors. These temples were filled with some distinctive sandstone Buddha images.

The main images in the temples are about five feet high, excluding their pedestal thrones. The face is rather round with a tendency to squareness around the jaw. The forehead is more broad than high, the face being widest over the eyes. The eyebrows form semicircular arches over the lowered eyelids, protecting the eyes which stare straight ahead. The large triangular nose has a straight bridge and terminates in wide flaring nostrils. Nostril lines continue down to the well-defined mouth which is set in a benign smile above a well-rounded, slightly protruding chin. The ears are large, especially in the upper portion. They do not usually touch the shoulders supporting a thickly set neck. The head is generally covered with small curls topped by a large bun-like usnisha.

The image sits with the right hand in the earth touching position, with fingers usually of the same length touching the shin. The left arm in the lap, as with the Ava images, is often supported by a small prop of stone. Unlike the Ava images, the legs are right over left in the virasana position. The feet are generally roughly hewn, the left one often scarcely sculptured at all. Clothing alternates between a tight-fitting upper garment which leaves the right shoulder and arm uncovered, to one which, apart from a line at the neck and the waist, is scarcely visible at all. Many images are mounted on high-stepped stone pedestals, finely carved with floral decoration, relieved by protruding flanges bearing lively human and animal figures.

Towards the end of the eighteenth or early nineteenth century, a new style of Buddha image called the "Mandalay" style developed. In this style the oval face is separated from the hair by a wide fillet band which is sometimes lacquered and inlaid with glass. The head is marked by even rows of small, slightly raised, curls. A thick, round, fleshy usnisha sits at the crown of the head. There is no finial. The arch of the eyebrows is very natural and the eyes have a slightly Mongoloid slant. There is sometimes an urna between the eyebrows. The nose is quite prominent and the mouth, set in a "Mona Lisa" smile, is larger and the lips thicker than in the earlier images. The ears are narrower than in the Ava style, but they still curve outwards when viewed face on. Fingers and toes are occasionally not of equal length. The robes are rendered in thick loose folds suggestive of Chinese Buddhist drapery. There is a prominent decorated flap over the left shoulder and the ends of the robe often appear in a fish-tail pattern. In this style Lord Buddha appears in either a sitting, standing, or reclining pose. From the mid nineteenth century onwards, more novelty has crept into the style of marble images. Elaborately crowned images with five to seven tiered crowns and side flanges have become popular, as have Buddha statues resting in the folds of a snake.

Marble continues to be a most popular medium today, while the art of sandstone sculpture seems to have disappeared. One can still see sculptors hard at work in the outer suburbs of Mandalay on the road to Amarapura, skillfully fashioning images for the faithful from marble which comes from the Sagyin area, twenty-two miles north of Mandalay. Some are occasionally inscribed by the donors, just as they were by their ancestors throughout the ages, with words such as:

"I, (name), have caused this image of the Blessed One to be made so that I might attain Deliverance. May the Gods, Devas and men, share my merit."